Introductory models & basic concepts

Berlo's S-M-C-R Model

[In Berlo's Model (see below) you will find the commonly used Source - Message -Channel - Receiver. For general comments on each of those, please consult the Shannon-Weaver Model.]

David Berlo's SMCR Model (1960) proposes that there are five elements within both the source/encoder and the receiver/decoder which will affect fidelity.

Source<>Receiver relationship

Berlo's approach is rather different from what seems to be suggested by the more straightforward transmission models in that he places great emphasis on dyadic communication, therefore stressing the rôle of the relationship between the source and the receiver as an important variable in the communication process.

As you will see from what follows, he enumerates what are the factors to be taken into account at each 'end' of the communication. Thus, for example, in principle, the more highly developed the communication skills of the source and the receiver, the more effectively the message will be encoded and decoded. In fact, however, the relationship between skill level of receiver and source needs to be taken into account, since, as Berlo points out:

A given source may have a high level of skill not shared by one receiver, but shared by another. We cannot predict the success of the source from her skill level alone.

Berlo (1960)

A monadic approach to the communication act would tell us much about the communication skill level, personal characteristics etc. of both source and receiver. In doing so, it might tell us about the general competence of both, but it doesn't allow us to make any firm predictions about the likely success of the communication. The communication studies teacher may have a seductive tone of voice, may be considered by the students to be 'one of them', may have expert and wide-ranging knowledge of communication theory, may have great enthusiasm for the subject; the student may be highly intelligent, articulate, literate and diligent. However, if the student finds communication theory pointless, boring and a load of hot air, then, clearly, fidelity will be far less than desirable.

Practical work

I would suggest that for practical work in communication and media studies, Berlo's model is a very useful point of departure. It may transpire as you progress in communication studies that there are many points, various assumptions which you could challenge Berlo on, but his model does have the merit of drawing our attention to the unpredictability of communication and does draw our attention to at least some of the factors which make it unpredictable. As such, it can serve as an excellent broad framework for your audience research. Another model which has similar merits is Maletzke's.

Communication Skills

There are five verbal communication skills, according to Berlo:

Two are encoding skills (see Shannon-Weaver: the encoder):

• speaking
• writing

Two are decoding skills (see Shannon-Weaver: the decoder):

• listening
• reading

The fifth is crucial to both encoding and decoding

• thought or reasoning, though you may perhaps wish to object that to place such emphasis on reasoning, what we generally think of as an intellectual skill, to the detriment of emotion or feeling, is unreasonable

As encoders our communication skills level affects our communication fidelity in two ways, according to Berlo:

• it affects our ability to analyse our own purposes and intentions, our ability to say something when we communicate - you may perhaps take issue with Berlo on this, since it is not apparent to all of us that we necessarily use verbal skills in reflecting on our purposes and intentions
• it affects our ability to encode messages which say what we intend. Our communication skills, our facility for handling the language code, affect our ability to encode thoughts that we have. We certainly all have experienced the frustration of not being able to find the 'right word' to express what we want to say. Bearing in mind Berlo's insistence on the dyadic nature of communication, we need to remember that finding the 'right word' is not simply a matter of finding one which expresses what we want to say to our own satisfaction. It also has to have approximately the same meaning for the receiver as it does for us.

There is evidence that our ability to use language actually affects the thoughts themselves. The words we can command, and the way that we put them together affect

• what we think about
• how we think
• whether we are thinking at all

There is little disagreement amongst communication and cultural studies theorists today that the codes we use (verbal or otherwise) affect the way we see the world and the way we think about it. Our experience of the world is thus a function of the codes we use, as is what we can express about that experience. For further information on this, see the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and the section on semiotics.

Whether this firm conviction amongst theorists is justified is a moot point, but, if we assume that they are right, then it follows that the fewer the linguistic resources we have at our disposal, the less rich our experience of the world is and the less we are able to express about that experience (hence, for example, the truism that even English people would benefit from learning a foreign language since it would give them a different way of looking at and experiencing the world). If we do not have the communication skills necessary to encode accurately then we are limited in our ability to express our purposes, indeed even in the purposes we can have in the first place. Our communication skills deficiencies limit the ideas that are available to us and limit our ability to manipulate these ideas (to think).

These general principles can of course be extended to any code we use, not just a linguistic code. The manipulation of any code, linguistic or other, requires skills, which can be more or less highly developed. Our schooling tends to lead us to think of language as the only code we use which requires skilful manipulation, but there are many others, such as codes of etiquette, dress codes, gestural codes and so on. You could go to France as a fluent speaker of French, but be unfamiliar with the codes of etiquette which apply there, so, as a well-bred English person, you're pratting around trying to skewer your peas on your fork while all the French are happily scooping theirs up and quietly wondering, despite the apparent sense of what you're saying, whether you really are quite right in the head.

We can summarize by saying that communication skills involve:

• knowing and applying the code's grammar
• knowing and using a broad vocabulary
• knowing and applying the conventions
• adapting the use of your code to your audience

The encoder's communication behaviour is affected by his/her knowledge of:

• his/her own attitudes - it may at first strike you as odd to suggest that we may have attitudes of which we are unaware, but there is plenty of evidence to suggest that many, if not most, of us do. If you are aware of an attitude which might, in the presence of any given receiver, arouse hostility, then you will be aware that it would be appropriate to conceal that attitude. Clearly, if you are unaware of the attitude, then you will not attempt to conceal it and your communication may fail as a result, despite whatever other skills you may have
• the ways in which s/he can produce or treat messages - you need to be aware of the possibilities open to you. It might transpire that you are highly skilled, a 'natural', in a particular possible treatment of your message, but, if you are not even aware of it as a possibility, then obviously it's an option which is closed to you. For example, many people's experience of the Internet is limited to using the Web; it could well be that getting your message to your audience would be better served by some kind of listserve. If you are only aware of the Web, then that's a possibility which is closed to you. Obviously, that also works the other way round - if your audience don't know of listserves as a possibility then they won't set out to look for them; again this underlines the importance of the dyadic approach.
• the kinds of choices s/he can make about communication channels etc. - if you don't know, for example, that some messages may be more effective in the non-verbal channel than in the verbal channel (a V sign is likely to be more effective than shouting at the driver who has just cut in front of you on your push bike). If you don't know that e-mail exists and send all your communications via snail-mail, then your competitors will be communicating faster than you.
• the subject matter - if you know nothing about cars, how do you begin to tell the mechanic what's wrong with yours. You can describe all the symptoms of course, but it's quite likely that you omit the one vital squeak or jerk which would lead the mechanic immediately to the source of the problem, simply because you don't know enough to determine that it was vital. Again, that works the other way around - when yu go to pick your car up and the mechanic explains to you why the bill was so enormous, what chance do you have of challenging the explanation?

All of these factors apply equally to the decoder/receiver.

Socio-cultural system

It's not easy to make a clear distinction between the influence of culture and of the social system, so we adopt here the practice of referring to the socio-cultural system.

My meanings, the semantic resources I deploy in a particular social context, may not be the same as your meanings, or as what your expectations of what my meanings should be; and that can lead to a bewildering lack of communication between us.

Halliday (1978)

No source communicates as a free agent without being influenced by his/her position in a socio-cultural system. People in differing social classes communicate differently. Social and cultural systems partly determine

•  the word choices which people make
•  the purposes they have for communicating
•  the meanings they attach to certain words
•  their choice of receivers
•  the channels they use for this or that kind of message etc.

Here are examples of each of those. You'll see, though, that it's a bit artificial to try to disentangle them in this way:

1) the authoritarian father who is not in a position of authority at work will speak very differently to his boss and his children. An inability to adjust his communication as appropriate to the two positions could well spell dire trouble at work.

2) people's purposes for communicating will depend very much on the rôle they are currently playing, whether their rôle at work, customer in a shop, teenager with friends, teenager in the family home etc.

3) there are clear differences in the meaning of words between teenagers and older people - 'wicked', 'bad' etc.

4) some social positions, e.g. teacher or receptionist, are communication-prone; others, such as night-watchman, will involve relatively little communication.

5) an obvious cultural difference between the British and the French is the extent to which each culture uses touch in interpersonal communication.

The decoder-receiver can also be spoken of in terms of communication skills, attitudes, knowledge level and socio-cultural position.

Attitudes

Attitude towards self

A student considers himself a bit of a dolt. As a result, he has become wary of asking questions. As a result of that wariness, many of the questions he does ask are formulated hesitantly, with a self-deprecating tone almost inviting dismissal. This student has a 'negative self-image (See more about self-image under Interpersonal Communication: Self-Image). We tend to seek out evidence which confirms us in the image we have of ourselves (even if that image is negative) and also to behave in a way which invites responses which confirm the accuracy of our self-image (the so-called self-fulfilling prophecy. This student's attitude to himself clearly affects the success of his communication.

Attitude towards subject matter

Interest and prejudice will play a rôle here, for example. The subject matter of teh discussion is computers and how to improve their performance. If you find them boring and couldn't give a damn about megabytes, gigabytes, ROM, RAM and blahdeblah, even if you have a very sound understanding of the terminology, then much of the message is obviously just going to pass you by

Attitude towards receiver

In your opinion, the person you are speaking to is stupid. You will certainly formulate your message differently from the way you formulate it for your intelligent friends, you may even some parts of the message as too complex for her to understand. This person is a computer nerd. What a geek. You make sure that when you lend him the books he wanted you don't smile too much and don't say any more than necessary in case he takes it as an invitation to strike up a friendship

Berlo lists five factors (communication skills, knowledge level, socio-cultural system, attitudes - did you notice there are only four there? Very attentive - that's because I've chosen to lump social system and culture together) which affect your transmission of your message. You will make a number of assumptions about those same five factors in the receiver. Your encoding of your message will be influenced by those five factors in you, but also by your assessment of how those same five factors affect the receiver's ability to receive your message. I guess you can see the circularity there - you are influenced by five factors which you make assumptions about in your receiver who makes assumptions about those five factors in you while receiving the message and, on the basis of those observations of the five factors in you, makes the best of the five factors in herself to encode a response to your message, the reception of which is influenced by the five factors in you and your observations of the five factors in her and... and...

All of the factors above apply to the receiver as they do to the source.

There is a separate section on attitudes, their components and their measurement. To view that section, please click here

Message

As you can see from the model, the essential elements which Berlo identifies for discussion under the heading of message are:

Code

Content

Treatment

Code

Whenever we encode a message, we must make certain decisions about the code we will use. We must decide:

•   which code
•   what elements of the code
•   what method of structuring the elements of the code we will select

When we analyse communication behaviour, messages, we need to include the source's decisions about the code in our analysis.

Content

Content is the material in the message that was selected by the source to express his/her purpose. It, like code, has both elements and structure. If you have five assertions to make, you must structure them - you must impose one or another order on them. The ways you choose to arrange assertions in part determine the structure of the content.

Treatment

The treatment of the message is the decisions which the source makes in selecting and arranging both code and content.

In preparing her copy for a newspaper a journalist treats her message in many ways. She selects content that she thinks will be interesting to her reader; she selects words from the code that she thinks her reader will understand; she structures her assertions, her information, in the way that she thinks her reader will prefer to receive them.

The editor will make decisions regarding type size to let her reader know she considers some things more important than others. She will put some stories on page 1 and others on page 11.

All these decisions are treatment decisions. They are ways in which the source chooses to encode his message by selecting certain elements of code and content and presenting them in one or another treatment.

The term treatment is also used in a less technical sense, namely the treatment for a radio or television programme, where you list your decisions about the content of the programme, its duration, the target audience, the time of broadcast etc.

When we decode messages we make decisions as to the sources purpose, their communication skills, their attitude towards us, their knowledge, their status. We try to estimate what kind of person would have produced this kind of message, an estimation which depends on the source's treatment of the message.

Channel

To explain the idea of channel, Berlo uses this analogy:

Suppose I am on one side of a river and you are on the other. I wish to send a package to you. What do I need?

• a boat to carry the package
• some means of getting the package into the boat, i.e. a dock. On your side, you also need a dock to get the package out of the boat
• some water, something that will serve as a carrier for the boat

In communication theory the equivalent of the boat, dock and water are all referred to as channels.

The dock:
This is what Shannon and Weaver would refer to as the encoding and decoding devices. We need some kind of mechanism for translating the electro-chemical signals inside our heads into a code understood by us and, we hope, by the receiver.

The boat:
When I encode my message into spoken language the oral message I encode has to come to you in some kind of vehicle. For spoken messages, the vehicle is soud waves. When I encode my message non-verbally, the message reaches you through the vehicle of light waves.

The water:
The sound waves themselves need something to support them, a wave-carrier. Sound waves are supported by air. Air is equivalent to the water. You might ask what light waves are carried by. A hundred or so years ago, I would have replied 'the ether', but he Michaelson-Morley experiment rather upset things there, so ask a physicist - is Berlo wrong?

In communicating, the source has to choose a channel to carry his/her message. Media buyers (the people in advertising agencies who buy television time or space in newspapers), for example, have to decide what is the best channel or combination of channels. Media selection is limited by

•   what is available
•   how much money can be spent
•   what the sources preferences are
•   which channels are received by the most people (at optimum cost)
•   which channels have the most impact, etc.

In everyday life we have to make similar decisions: would a verbal message such as 'please go away' (or even some slightly different treatment of that message!) be as effective as a punch on the nose?

The five senses?

You will have noticed perhaps that Berlo lists the five senses as communication channels. Some would of course question this limitation, claiming that we have a 'sixth sense' of some kind, a sort of natural intuition. That might perhaps be taking us into the realms of parapsychology, but there is evidence that we do seem to communicate using channels other than those that Berlo lists.

For example, the peculiar phenomenon of synchronization of menstrual cycles amongst women who live in close proximity has often been claimed to cause problems in single-sex institutions such as women's prisons or convents. Research has been conducted on women who have never met to see if this synchronisation might be caused by something in their sweat. Swabs of sweat were regularly taken from under the armpits of a woman who was menstruating and then smeared on to the upper lip (I kid you not) of another woman who was not. In time, although the women had never come into contact, their menstrual cycles synchronized.

It may be that in such a case we are communicating through chemical agents known as pheromones. In our noses we have a tiny structure known as the vomeronasal organ (or VNO for short). It is known that this organ appears to be receptive to pheromones in animals and insects. In bees, for example, the queen can produce pheromones which stall sexual development in other females, who are thereby turned into workers; if you block a rhesus monkey's VNO, he loses his libido.

Whether or not we human beings produce actual pheromones is, as far as I am aware, still open to question (though that doesn't stop cosmetics companies from marketing 'pheromone sprays' and the like). However, it does seem clear that we produce substances known as androstenes and copulines, which appear to act in a similar way to pheromones. In one experiment, researchers sprayed human androstenes on seats in a theatre and found that men became less likely, and women more likely, to sit on them; other studies have shown that women are likely to have more regular periods if regularly exposed to male sweat, which contains androstenes.

I don't know of any more firm or conclusive research than that, except that I have read of some lab research claiming that exposure to pheromones reduces heart rate and blood pressure. That research was, however, conducted by a company commercially exploiting pheromones in body sprays, deodorants and so on. I have not been able to discover that the results have been replicated in independent tests. Nevertheless, the research I am aware of is suggestive of a 'sixth sense', though perhaps not what we normally mean by that term.

Related Articles:

Source & Receiver, see: Shannon-Weaver

Attitudes

Perception

Social systems

Vomeronasal organ: see the Neuroscience pages of Florida State University