Mass media: sex and violence

Violence: field experiments

As it seems desirable to try to avoid the criticisms levelled at laboratory experiments on violence, a variety of field experiment techniques have been developed.

Feshbach and Singer

In this famous experiment a sample of boys aged from 8 to 18 were observed over six weeks. They were drawn from three private schools and two boys' homes. During the period of the experiment their TV viewing was prescribed for them. The boys were assigned at random to groups, some of whom saw only 'aggressive' programmes, others only 'non-aggressive' programmes.

The conclusion from the research was that those who watched aggressive TV seemed to come out of the experiment with reduced aggression. This finding suggested that violent media output might have a cathartic effect. The objections to the catharsis thesis are summarized as follows by Maccoby (1951):

• even if there is a cathartic effect, it is not evident how long it lasts
• presumably, as soon as the receiver returns from the fantasy world to her real world of frustrations and anxieties, aggression will surface again
• it is important to consider the case of the receiver who does not turn to aggressive media products out of frustration, but out of mere boredom and routine. In such a case it is quite possible that aggressive impulses might be strengthened.
• even if a receiver does feel a diminution of aggressive impulses as a result of exposure to aggressive media content, is it not possible that in the long run the observed aggressive behaviour is simply added to her stock of experiences, which determine her later behaviour?

Gauntlett (1995: 20) also points out that, where it was found that some of the youngsters exposed to the diet of non-violent fare apparently became more aggressive towards their peers, this may have had little to do with any supposed cathartic effect of screen violence, but more to do with their annoyance and frustration at being denied their usual TV programmes. In fact, the Batman fans were so annoyed that the researchers had to give in and let them watch it.

Research which supports the catharsis hypothesis includes, besides Feshbach's and Singer's:

• Denny - fourteen-year-olds' frustrations were reduced by exposure to certain 'guidance' films
• Schramm et al - comparison of children in towns with and without television('radiotown' and 'teletown') suggested that television reduces aggressive tendencies
• BBC listener research - observed that interest in boxing matches increased continuously with age; suggested that younger people have the possibility of real satisfaction of aggressive impulses whereas older people find such possibilities closed off to them and use boxing as a means of vicarious satisfaction of their aggressive needs

Research which challenges the catharsis hypothesis includes:

• Siegel (1955) - four-year-olds showed greater aggression in their play after exposure to aggressive content
• Siegel - adolescents often show aggression after exposur eto aggressive films
• Maccoby - mothers who were interviewed said that their children were often difficult to control after exposure to aggressive media content

A study by Emery and Martin showed no difference in aggression after exposure to westerns. Berkowitz's overview of the relevant studies concluded that the great majority supported the catharsis thesis. (All of the above studies are referred to in Maletezke (1963 : 141 - 143)

Howitt and Gumberbach

Children were asked to nominate three of their peers who they felt imitated aggressive TV heroes. The researchers worked on the hypothesis that children who did not have an older brother or sister who could serve as a model for their behaviour were more likely to engage in imitative behaviour. The study suggested that this was in fact the case, children without an older sibling being more likely to model themselves on aggressive TV heroes.

Criticisms

A possible problem here is that those observing the boys' behaviour over six weeks knew which programmes they watched and were therefore predisposed to interpret their behaviour in certain ways.

Halloran et al (1970) quote approvingly the opinion of the French sociologist, André Glucksman, that catharsis may be possible for some people in some situations and that for other people in other situations real violence may be induced by identification - again the problem that not enough variables are taken into account.

Hennigan, Del Rosario, Heath, Cook, Wharton & Calder

These authors' study is reported in Gauntlett (1995). Their research is a 'found' experiment, rather than a field experiment, since it looks into the effects of the introduction of TV into certain areas of the USA before and after the freeze on new licences between 1949 and 1952. If the hypothesis that increased crime is linked to increased exposure to TV is well-founded, then there should have been an increase in crime in those communities which had TV prior to 1949 before an increase in crime in those communities that had it only after 1952. The only effect found was an increase in larceny. As the authors of the study pointed out, larceny is very rarely shown on TV, so a copycat effect hardly seems likely. The researchers speculated that the increase in larceny may be due to a greater sense of relative deprivation felt by many viewers who envied the opulent lifestyle of the characters in drama and commercials. Although this is a view recently supported by the British Secretary of State for Education in his criticism of television output, notably of Who Wants to be a Millionaire?, and is often adduced to account for muggings, especially in those cases where a person is attacked for some fashion accessory such as Nike trainers, it remains entirely speculative.

Milavsky

Another 'found' experiment referred to by Gauntlett is Milavsky's investigation of the effects of increased videotape rental during the 1980s. Videotapes clearly have a good deal more 'violent' content than average TV output, so, if TV violence does have the effect so often claimed, one would expect to find an increase in violent crime during the early 1980s. In fact, Milavsky quotes figures which show a decrease between 1980 and 1985 in the incidence of homicide and aggravated assault. Whilst the incidence of rape fluctuated, there was a clear downward trend.

Related articles:

Research into pornography

Regulation of the media in the UK